The World of art is complex and challenging more so in India because the documentation here is remarkably thin whatever exists is widely scattered and difficult to gather. Addressing these issues, this volume brings together an astounding body of material consisting not only of speculations or theories, but also of original, primary sources. Between the pages we hear sages speak of the interrelationships of the arts, practitioners records measurements of units of time and space, iconographers lay down measurements of units of time and space, iconographers lay down rules and practices, artists record their experiences, and patrons recount their delights.
Oxford Readings in Indian Art traces the long, rich varied tradition of reflection on Indian art. Organized into thematic section, the contributions range from texts on iconography and aesthetics and excerpts bearing upon our understanding of patronage and artistic practices, to information on artists and early writings that have shaped our thinking on Indian art.
Slowly as one dips into these sources, one can hear the past speak and see the arts of India, which have been lost of history, come alive.
B.N. Goswamy, acclaimed art historian, is currently professor emeritus of art history at Panjab University, Chandigarh India. He has held several distinguished poition: he has been visiting professor at many universities in Europe and the USA, including Heidelberg University, Germany ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich), Switzerland; the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, the University of California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, and the University of Texas at Austin, in the USA. He has been the recipient of the Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship, and the Tagore National Fellowship. He was honoured by the president of India with the padma Shri in 1998 and the Padma Bhushan in 2008.
Introduction
The putting together of a volume like this is a task. While there is evident need for under- standing what the practice and the state of the arts in India in the past was, and for that to go to original sources which can serve as 'Readings', doing this is not easy. For the sources are scattered; facts have be gleaned, slowly; statements made directly are few; much has to be read between the lines; and interpretations tend to vary. No histories of art appear to have been written in early India; no biographies of artists exist, nor have artists left any notebooks or memoirs of their own. Much knowledge, having been preserved within families and passed on orally from generation to generation, remains hidden. The hard information we have from the past, as far as the arts are concerned, comes to us thus in the form of whispers that one can sometimes barely hear.
The limitations are clear. And yet, with some effort, a picture, somewhat hazy perhaps, can be reconstructed. For doing this the sources-primary, original, authentic, reasonably dateable, or securely dated-that one has to go back to and draw upon, are of diverse kinds and differ from period to period. To take some examples from ancient India, there is that seminal text, Bharata's Natyashastra, which has extensive passages on how the arts come into being and how they affect, even shape, minds. The Puranas-Agni, Markandeya, Linga, Shiva, among them-s-even though essentially religious texts in character, yield information, for instance, on iconography, and contain legends in which the arts sometimes figure. There are shilpa-shastras, the equivalent of manuals on art, which go into the making of images or structures-Chitrasutra, Chitralakshana, samarangana Sutradharo, Manasara, Abhilashaitartha Chintamani, Mayamata, among them-and contain most valuable passages on materials, processes, iconography, iconometry. Related to these in some manner are works that, strictly speaking, come from the fields of the performing or literary arts-the sahitya Darpana for instance, or the Abhinaya Darpana-but have a clear bearing on the visual arts. Works of literature, among them plays like Bhasa's Pratima Nataka, or Kalidasa's Abhijnana Shakuntalam, and cycles of stories such as the Kathasarita Sagara, provide insights into or descriptions of works of art. All of these have been drawn upon. Some things remain insistently obscured from sight, but there are others that come into full, sharp view.
From the period that followed, unparalleled, in respect of the information it contains, is the Akbar period work Abu'l Fazl's Ain-i Akbari-which has a whole chapter on the 'Arts of Writing and Painting'. Notices of art appear in chronicles or memoirs, names of individual painters start emerging in this period, and an emperor like Jahangir devotes space in his Tuzuk for the work that his most gifted artists did for him: men like Abu'l Hasan and Mansur. There are no detailed lives of the painters, but some painters and calligraphers begin to turn from shadows into substances as much from notices of them in other peoples' writings, however brief, as from their portraits that have survived. There were early visitors from the Islamic and Buddhist worlds-Fa Hsien, Alberuni, Taranath, among them-who observed and wrote about the arts in India. Writings from the Persian world which directly impacted or bore relevance to what was going on in respect of techniques and processes followed in Mughal India Bihzad's notes, Sadiq Beg's composition on the 'Laws of Painting' -are useful to draw upon. Truly valuable at the same time are the accounts left by European travellers and officers who came to India in a steady stream, from Jesuit priests and merchants and physicians to ambassadors to the Imperial court-Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz, Garcia da Orta, Father Monserrate, Johannes de Laet, William Finch, Thomas Roe, Bernier, Tavernier, Thevenot; somewhat later, Polier, Moorcroft, William Barr, von Orlich, and others-and the observations, some enthusiastic, others somewhat superior and cynical, they made on the arts in India. Their understanding of the grammar of these arts, and of their aesthetics, might have been partial, but their observation was sharp.
Writing anything close to the history of art in India, or aspects of it, began no earlier than the early years of the twentieth century, but a fair body of material came together then. There were scholars who translated old but nearly lost texts and added their own comments on them; others took stock of what was on the ground and helped to deepen understanding; still others who brought little known, or virtually unnoticed, developments in the arts into the foreground, Gopinath Rao, Manmohan Ghose, P.K. Acharya, Ananda Coomaraswamy, J. Ph. Vogel, Vincent Smith, E.B. Havell, Abanindranath Tagore, J.c. French, Goetz and Kuhnel, Stella Kramrisch, N.C. Mehta, among them. Excerpts from their writings go legit- imately into the 'Readings' that this volume consists of.
What has been set forth above might convey to the reader an idea of how things have been gone about, but there are other things that have also been researched, other sources drawn upon. In any case, the materials gathered have been organized under six sections: Early Textual References to Art; Icons and Their Measurements; Aesthetic Theory; Artists and Patrons; The Arts in Practice and as Observed; and Early Art Historical Writings.
There is much overlapping in this ordering, and it is admittedly somewhat arbitrary. But we hope that it makes for some convenience of consultation. With the same consideration in mind, each section is introduced, or preceded by, what can be called 'head-notes'.
A few things need to be stated about this effort. What is put together here is, in the nature of things, excerpts from sources, illustrative rather than exhaustive. The intention clearly is to lead the researcher/reader to those sources and by no means exhaust them. Other scholars might easily have gone for other sources or selections, and, naturally therefore, other readings. Some passages here run into several pages and there are others- inscriptions, colophons, and the like-that consist of no more than a few lines. But then that is of the essence of the material. An effort has been made, not always successfully, to provide some dates although perfectly secure dates, at least as far as early India is concerned, are the exception rather than the rule.
Two things in the end. This volume concerns itself essentially with the visual arts and not the performing or the literary. Spreading out into those other fields would have required another volume. Likewise, the final section on Early Art Historical Writings, stops suddenly, and indefensibly perhaps, with the year 1947. What followed after that, we are aware, is filled with other riches, but those, again, deserve to go into another volume. Meanwhile, it is hoped that what is put together and presented here would provide some insights, as also factually prove of some value to those whom the arts of India continue to interest.
Contents
Acknowledgements | xv | |
Introduction | XVII | |
PART I - EARLY TEXTUAL REFERENCES TO ART | ||
1 | The Hymn of Creation', from the Rig-veda | 3 |
2 | References to the Physical Attributes of Deities in the Rig-veda | 5 |
3 | Silpas or Hymns for Producing Art | 6 |
4 | An Image of a Woman Made Out of Gold by the Bodhisattva in the Kusa-Jataka | 7 |
5 | References to the Bodhisattva's Inherent Skill in Architecture, and the Act of Decorating Buildings, from the Maha- Ummaga Jataka | 9 |
6 | Bharata's Identification of a Sculpture of His Father, through Its Lakshanas | 11 |
7 | Mention of Craftsmen and Artisans in the Description of the Crowd That Welcomes the Buddha to Kapilavastu | 15 |
8 | A List of Sixty-four Arts from Yashodhara's Commentary on the Kamasutra ofVatsyayana | 17 |
9 | Sixty-four Kalas from the Shaivatantra | 21 |
10 | The Art of Painting and the Artist Used as Metaphors in the Context of Buddha's Teachings | 22 |
11 | Separated from Shakuntala, King Dushyanta Commissions Her | 24 |
12 | The 'Birth' of Painting as the Heavenly Apsara Urvashi | 27 |
13 | The Interrelationship of the Main Branches of the Arts, Elucidated by Markandeya in the Chitrasiura | 29 |
14 | The Divine Origins of Chitra, as Expounded by Brahma | 31 |
15 | The Bodhisattva's Accomplishment in the Arts | 33 |
16 | A Painter Fools Everyone by Painting a Life-like Image of His Own Corpse in a Tocharian Jataka | 35 |
17 | A Reference to the Celebrated Painter Mani in the Persian Epic E15 | 38 |
18 | A King and His Friend Attempt to Guess the Identity of a Woman through Her Attributes as Painted in the Murals in the Palace | 41 |
19 | The Striking Realism of a Queen's Portrait Raises Suspicion in the Mind of the Patron King | 45 |
20 | A Princess Identifies Her Beloved, Only Encountered in a Dream, from a Painting Made by Her Friend | 47 |
21 | A Painted Peacock Feather Is Mistaken for a Real One by a King | 49 |
22 | A Prince Falls in Love with a Beautiful Stone Statue of a Woman | 50 |
23 | A Story of the Origin of the Arts, in the [ain Context | 52 |
24 | A Competition between the Artists of Turkey and China | 53 |
25 | The Emperor of China Is Helped by His Minister's Skill in the Art of Painting | 56 |
26 | Different Artisans Drawn on the Playing Cards Specifically Designed for Akbar, as Described by Abu'l Fazl | 61 |
27 | A Portrait of the Princess of China Causes All Men to Fall in Love with Her | 63 |
28 | The Uniting of Separated Lovers as a Theme in Paintings | 65 |
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1 | Forms of the .lmages of Different Devas: Rama, Varaha, Narasimha, Shiva, and Others | 69 |
2 | Characteristics of the Image of Vasudeva and Other Gods: Iconography and Measurements | 71 |
3 | Passages Relating to Varieties of Lingas and Benefits from Their Worship | 74 |
4 | Measurements of the Five Kinds of Men from the Churasutra | 76 |
5 | Shiva Reveals His Many Forms, in the Tantric Text Shiva Rahasya | 78 |
6 | Different Temple Structures Listed and Explained by Varaha Mihira | 81 |
7 | The Necessary Qualifications of Architects, and the System of Measurement To Be Followed, as Expounded in the Manasara | 83 |
8 | The Manasara's Instructions on the 'Chiselling of the Eyes' of Idols to Prepare Them for Worship | 87 |
9 | Description on the Making of the Images of the Buddha | 92 |
10 | Prescriptions Concerning the Making of Images, Etc., as Given in the Sukranitisara | 94 |
11 | Svarupas of Diverse Hindu Deities, and Some Measurements | 96 |
12 | Directions from the Sariputra on the Making of the Images of the Buddha | 98 |
13 | Buddha's Own Recommendations about How Images of His Should Be Made: Measurements and Other Details | 101 |
14 | Iconographic Details for the Images of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, as well as Hindu Deity Ganesha, from the Sadhanamala | 105 |
15 | The Fourteen Dreams ofTrishala, as Described in the Kalpa Sutra | 107 |
16 | Prescriptions for the Images of Jain Deities | 111 |
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The Eight Rasas Explained | 117 | |
The 'Laws of Dance': Expressions, Gestures, Glances, Hand Positions, Etc. | 127 | |
Aesthetic Experience as Annotated in Abhinavagupta's Commentary on the Natyashastra | 134 | |
An Approach to Aesthetics through a Combined Study of Rhetoric and Drama | 137 | |
The Six Fundamental Rules of Painting Elucidated | 139 | |
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1 | A Description of Materials and Methods of Making Images | 143 |
2 | Recipes for Lepas or Plasters To Be Used for Construction and Repair | 145 |
3 | The Guide to the Lost Wax Technique Used to Cast Idols | 147 |
4 | A Summary of the Contents of the Mayamatam | 149 |
5 | The Method of Plastering Walls in Preparation for Painting | 151 |
6 | Rules for the Correct Technique of Painting | 154 |
7 | The 'Epistle' of Maulana Sultan Ali | 157 |
8 | Detailed Description of the Netra Mangalya, or the Ceremony of 'Eye Opening' of a Sacred Image | 162 |
9 | A Chapter on Pratima Lakshana-the Characteristics of (Sacred) Images-Guides Sculptors on Materials and Methods | 168 |
10 | Reference to the Oris san Artist's Process as It Was in Eighteenth Century | 171 |
11 | Two Official Documents on the Production of Paper at Daulatabad | 172 |
12 | The Process for Obtaining Peori Yellow Pigment | 174 |
13 | Methods of Extracting Dyes Explained | 176 |
14 | Documentation of the Process of Making Paper | 179 |
15 | A List of Botanical Sources of Coloured Pigments, Used for Making Dyes | 181 |
16 | Procedure for Making Sialkoti Paper | 184 |
17 | Faxian's Description of the Chariot Procession of Buddha at Pataliputra | 186 |
18 | Xuanzang's Account of Stupas and Images of Buddha in Gandhara | 188 |
19 | Alberuni's Observations on the Materials Used for Writing and Painting in India | 190 |
20 | Domingo Paes Describes the Vijayanagara Empire | 193 |
21 | Opulence of the Kingdom of Vi jay an agar a as Observed by Fernao Nuniz | 196 |
22 | An Early Description of the Elephanta Caves | 198 |
23 | Taranath's Record of the History of Some Accomplished Indian Artists | 200 |
24 | An Extract from a Letter by the Dutch Painter Cornelis Claez de Heda | 202 |
25 | William Finch Observes the Frescoes on the Walls of Royal Buildings at Lahore and Agra | 203 |
26 | Jesuit Priests Present a Painting of the Madonna at the Court of Akbar | 206 |
27 | Akbar's Visit to a Jesuit Chapel in Agra, as Recorded by Monserrate | 211 |
28 | Johannes de Laet's Estimation of the Wealth of the Mughal Monarchs | 213 |
29 | Thomas Roe's Encounters with Jahangir, and the Mughal Emperor's Interest in Western Art | 215 |
30 | Francois Bernier's Letter Describing the Art of Painting as Practised in Different Cities of Mughal India | 217 |
31 | Tavernier's Detailed Description of the Mughal 'Peacock Throne' | 219 |
32 | Travelogue of Thevenot as He Travelled through Different Parts of India, Observing the Arts and Monuments | 221 |
33 | Forbes's Appreciation of the Art at Elephanta and Ellora | 225 |
34 | The Artist William Hodges's Thoughts and Observances on Indian Architecture | 227 |
35 | The Process of Production of Paper at 'Hurry Ha!' as Witnessed by Edward Moor | 229 |
36 | A Description of the Temples at Barolli | 231 |
37 | References to the Art of Painting under the Kangra Ruler Sansar Chand from William Moorcroft's Correspondence and Journals | 234 |
38 | Frescoes at Mandi Described by Vigne | 236 |
39 | Details of the Frescoes in the Palace at Wazirabad | 238 |
40 | References to Murals from the Journals of William Barr | 240 |
41 | Leopold von Orlich's Encounter with the Court Painter of Maharaja Sher Singh | 242 |
42 | Reference to a Local Artist, in the Letters of Emily Eden | 243 |
43 | Paintings of Kangra and Chamba Observed and Described by an Austrian Soldier and Traveller | 244 |
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1 | Details of Artists and Artisans in the Accounts of the Padmakesara Temple at Konaraka, from the Time of Its Construction | 251 |
2 | A Letter of the Famed Persian Painter Bihzad | 255 |
3 | A Royal Warrant Appointing Bihzad as the Head of the Royal Library of Shah Esma'il | 257 |
4 | Reference to Artists from the Account of Humayun's Reign, in the Words of His Chronicler Bayazid Biyat | 259 |
5 | Abu'l Fazl's Account of the Arts of Writing and Painting as Practised during the Reign of Akbar | 261 |
6 | Badauni's Reference to Two Artists from the Imperial Atelier of Akbar | 268 |
7 | A Selection of References Collected from Different Literary Sources on the Making of the Hamza Nama under the Patronage of Akbar | 270 |
8 | Mir Musavvir's Petition | 274 |
9 | The Painter Keshavadas's Petition | 275 |
10 | A Reference to Farrukh Husain, a Painter at the Court of Ibrahim II Adil Shahi of Bijapur | 276 |
11 | References to the Art of Painting in the Autobiography of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir | 277 |
12 | Jahangir's Interest in Portraiture as Recorded by the Scholar Mutribi | 280 |
13 | Reference to Maharaja Ranjit Singh's Patronage of Painting | 282 |
14 | Instructions Sent by Polier to His Indian Artist Mehrchand | 284 |
15 | Catalogues Maintained by the State of Bikaner: Record of the Contribution of Individual Artists to the Commissioned Manuscripts | 287 |
16 | Painter Shiba's Letter to His Patron, the Maharaja of Kangra | 289 |
17 | Entries Made in Pilgrims' Registers at Haridwar by Members of an Artist Family | 291 |
18 | Petitions Written by Artists, Addressed to Their Patrons | 293 |
19 | Details of the Construction of a Temple Commissioned by the Maharani of Marwar: Details on the Artisans and Labourers | 296 |
20 | Records Relating to the Craftsmen Employed by the Jagannath Temple at Puri | 298 |
21 | Donations by Artisans and Craftsmen Recorded in Inscriptions at the Sanchi Stupa | 303 |
22 | Two Inscriptions from the Bharhut Stupa Record the Donations Made by a Stone Worker and a Sculptor | 304 |
23 | Donation by an Artisan to a Stupa at Jaggayapeta in the Andhra Region | 305 |
24 | Votive Inscriptions from the Amravati Stupa | 306 |
25 | Record of the Donations Received in the Kanheri Caves of Maharashtra | 307 |
26 | The Migration of a Guild of Weavers from Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh Recorded in an Inscription | 308 |
27 | A Brief Inscription from Ajanta Containing the Name of an Artist Apprentice | 312 |
28 | Extracts from an Inscription Recording the Employment of Different Artists and Craftsmen at the Rajarajeshwara Temple in Tanjavur | 313 |
29 | Deopara Stone Inscription Signed by the Sculptor | 315 |
30 | Inscriptions from a Hoysala Temple at Belur Record the Names of the Sculptors | 316 |
31 | An Engraver's Signature in an Inscription from Silimpur, West Bengal | 319 |
32 | Names of Artisans, Stone Cutters, and Labourers Documented in Inscriptions Found at Radhanpur, Gujarat | 320 |
33 | The Colophon of an Early Kalpasutra Manuscript | 322 |
34 | The Colophon of a Fifteenth-century Vasanta- Vilasa Scroll | 323 |
35 | Important Information Extracted from the Colophon of a Manuscript from Jaunpur | 324 |
36 | Inscriptions in the Hands of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan on an Album of Persian Poetry | 325 |
37 | A Detailed Colophon of a Devi Mahatmya Manuscript from the Pahari Region | 328 |
38 | Name of the Scribe Recorded in the Colophon of a Deval Rani Khizr Khan Manuscript | 329 |
39 | Colophon of an Illustrated Anwar-i-Suhailli Manuscript | 330 |
40 | The Detailed Colophon of a Ramayana Manuscript Commissioned by the Khan-i-Khanan Abdul Rahim | 331 |
41 | Names of Artists, Place, and Date of Creation, from the Colophon of a Ragamala Series from 1591 CE | 333 |
42 | A Colophon from a Manuscript of the Anwar-i-Suhailli, Completed at Lahore | 334 |
43 | The Colophon of a Lavishly Illuminated Manuscript of the Khamsah of Amir Khusrau | 335 |
44 | The Colophon of a Nafahat al- Uns Written by Abdul Rahim during the Reign of Akbar, at Agra | 336 |
45 | An Inscription by Jahangir in an Illustrated Ramayana Manuscript of the Imperial Mughal Library | 337 |
46 | The Colophon from a Bustan Manuscript Written at Agra | 338 |
47 | The Colophon from an Illustrated Vijnaptipatra Scroll | 339 |
48 | The Colophon from a Ragamala Series | 341 |
49 | The Colophon from a Gulistan Manuscript, Written by Ruknuddin Mas'ud, a Poet and Physician of the Mughal Court | 342 |
50 | The Colophon of a Ragamala Manuscript Illustrated by the Eminent Mewar Painter Sahibdin | 343 |
51 | Three Sectional Colophons from a Manuscript Containing Three Different Texts | 344 |
52 | The Colophon of a Basholi Rasamanjari Series from 1695 CE | 346 |
53 | An Inscription from a Painting of Lakshmi-Narayan from the Reign of Karan Singh of Bikaner | 347 |
54 | The Colophon of a Ragamala Manuscript Painted at Amber in 1709 CE | 348 |
55 | Three Colophons from Manuscripts Produced during the Reign of Maharana Sangram Singh of Mewar | 349 |
56 | Different Interpretations and Translations of the Colophon of a Pahari Gita-Govinda Series, Attributed to the Artist Manaku | 350 |
57 | The Colophon of a Madhu-Malati Manuscript from Kulu | 352 |
58 | The Colophon of a Series of Ramayana Drawings, Written by the Pandit Who Collaborated with the Artist | 353 |
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1 | Ram Raz, An Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus | 357 |
2 | B.H. Baden-Powell, Handbook of the Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab | 359 |
3 | George C.M. Birdwood, The Industrial Arts of India | 363 |
4 | Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras | 365 |
5 | T.H. Hendley, Memorials of the Jeypore Exhibition 1883 | 369 |
6 | The Parable of Indian Art' | 373 |
7 | T.N. Mukharji, Art-Manufactures of India | 377 |
8 | Albert Grunwedel, Buddhist Art in India | 380 |
9 | Edmund W. Smith, 'Wall Paintings Recently Found in the Khwabgah Fathpur Sikri, Near Agra' | 383 |
10 | George Watt, Indian Art at Delhi 1903 | 390 |
11 | J.L. Kipling, The Beast and Man in India | 392 |
12 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Indian Craftsman | 396 |
13 | J. Ph. Vogel, Catalogue of the Bhuri Singh Museum at Chamba | 400 |
14 | James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture | 403 |
15 | Christiana J. Herringham, 'The Frescos of Ajanta' | 406 |
16 | Defects in Indian Art Ware' | 410 |
17 | Festival of Empire and Imperial Exhibition' | 415 |
18 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, 'The Modern School of Indian Painting' | 418 |
19 | E.V. Havell, The Ideals of Indian Art | 422 |
20 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Eight Nayikas' | 424 |
21 | T.A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography | 427 |
22 | Abanindranath Tagore, Some Notes on Indian Artistic Anatomy | 430 |
23 | The Editor, 'Note on Previous Copyings of the Frescoes' | 432 |
24 | Laurence Binyon, 'The Place of Ajanta Paintings in Eastern Art' | 434 |
25 | George C.M. Birdwood, Sva | 436 |
26 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, Rajput Painting | 438 |
27 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Dance of Shiva | 443 |
28 | John Marshall, A Guide to Taxila | 451 |
29 | M. Auguste Rodin, 'The Dance o fShiva' | 456 |
30 | Laurence Binyon, The Court Painters of the Grand Moguls | 459 |
31 | L.D. Swamikannu Pillai, An Indian Ephemeris AD 700 to AD 1799 | 462 |
32 | Rabindranath Tagore, 'The Creative Ideal' | 465 |
33 | Percy Brown, Indian Painting under the Mughals, AD 1550 to AD 1750 | 470 |
34 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston | 480 |
35 | Ernst Kuhnel and Herman Goetz, Indian Book Painting | 484 |
36 | N.C. Mehta, Studies in Indian Painting | 490 |
37 | Ivan Stchoukine, La Peinture Indienne a l'Epoque des Grands Moghols | 493 |
38 | Vincent A. Smith, A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon | 496 |
39 | J.c. French, Himalayan Art | 499 |
40 | Muhammad Sana-ullah, 'Notes and Analyses' | 509 |
41 | Heinrich Zimmer, 'Some Aspects of Time in Indian Art' | 514 |
42 | E.J.H. Mackay, 'Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro' | 516 |
43 | Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple | 524 |
Bibliography | 529 | |
About the Editor | 537 |
The World of art is complex and challenging more so in India because the documentation here is remarkably thin whatever exists is widely scattered and difficult to gather. Addressing these issues, this volume brings together an astounding body of material consisting not only of speculations or theories, but also of original, primary sources. Between the pages we hear sages speak of the interrelationships of the arts, practitioners records measurements of units of time and space, iconographers lay down measurements of units of time and space, iconographers lay down rules and practices, artists record their experiences, and patrons recount their delights.
Oxford Readings in Indian Art traces the long, rich varied tradition of reflection on Indian art. Organized into thematic section, the contributions range from texts on iconography and aesthetics and excerpts bearing upon our understanding of patronage and artistic practices, to information on artists and early writings that have shaped our thinking on Indian art.
Slowly as one dips into these sources, one can hear the past speak and see the arts of India, which have been lost of history, come alive.
B.N. Goswamy, acclaimed art historian, is currently professor emeritus of art history at Panjab University, Chandigarh India. He has held several distinguished poition: he has been visiting professor at many universities in Europe and the USA, including Heidelberg University, Germany ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich), Switzerland; the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, the University of California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, and the University of Texas at Austin, in the USA. He has been the recipient of the Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship, and the Tagore National Fellowship. He was honoured by the president of India with the padma Shri in 1998 and the Padma Bhushan in 2008.
Introduction
The putting together of a volume like this is a task. While there is evident need for under- standing what the practice and the state of the arts in India in the past was, and for that to go to original sources which can serve as 'Readings', doing this is not easy. For the sources are scattered; facts have be gleaned, slowly; statements made directly are few; much has to be read between the lines; and interpretations tend to vary. No histories of art appear to have been written in early India; no biographies of artists exist, nor have artists left any notebooks or memoirs of their own. Much knowledge, having been preserved within families and passed on orally from generation to generation, remains hidden. The hard information we have from the past, as far as the arts are concerned, comes to us thus in the form of whispers that one can sometimes barely hear.
The limitations are clear. And yet, with some effort, a picture, somewhat hazy perhaps, can be reconstructed. For doing this the sources-primary, original, authentic, reasonably dateable, or securely dated-that one has to go back to and draw upon, are of diverse kinds and differ from period to period. To take some examples from ancient India, there is that seminal text, Bharata's Natyashastra, which has extensive passages on how the arts come into being and how they affect, even shape, minds. The Puranas-Agni, Markandeya, Linga, Shiva, among them-s-even though essentially religious texts in character, yield information, for instance, on iconography, and contain legends in which the arts sometimes figure. There are shilpa-shastras, the equivalent of manuals on art, which go into the making of images or structures-Chitrasutra, Chitralakshana, samarangana Sutradharo, Manasara, Abhilashaitartha Chintamani, Mayamata, among them-and contain most valuable passages on materials, processes, iconography, iconometry. Related to these in some manner are works that, strictly speaking, come from the fields of the performing or literary arts-the sahitya Darpana for instance, or the Abhinaya Darpana-but have a clear bearing on the visual arts. Works of literature, among them plays like Bhasa's Pratima Nataka, or Kalidasa's Abhijnana Shakuntalam, and cycles of stories such as the Kathasarita Sagara, provide insights into or descriptions of works of art. All of these have been drawn upon. Some things remain insistently obscured from sight, but there are others that come into full, sharp view.
From the period that followed, unparalleled, in respect of the information it contains, is the Akbar period work Abu'l Fazl's Ain-i Akbari-which has a whole chapter on the 'Arts of Writing and Painting'. Notices of art appear in chronicles or memoirs, names of individual painters start emerging in this period, and an emperor like Jahangir devotes space in his Tuzuk for the work that his most gifted artists did for him: men like Abu'l Hasan and Mansur. There are no detailed lives of the painters, but some painters and calligraphers begin to turn from shadows into substances as much from notices of them in other peoples' writings, however brief, as from their portraits that have survived. There were early visitors from the Islamic and Buddhist worlds-Fa Hsien, Alberuni, Taranath, among them-who observed and wrote about the arts in India. Writings from the Persian world which directly impacted or bore relevance to what was going on in respect of techniques and processes followed in Mughal India Bihzad's notes, Sadiq Beg's composition on the 'Laws of Painting' -are useful to draw upon. Truly valuable at the same time are the accounts left by European travellers and officers who came to India in a steady stream, from Jesuit priests and merchants and physicians to ambassadors to the Imperial court-Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz, Garcia da Orta, Father Monserrate, Johannes de Laet, William Finch, Thomas Roe, Bernier, Tavernier, Thevenot; somewhat later, Polier, Moorcroft, William Barr, von Orlich, and others-and the observations, some enthusiastic, others somewhat superior and cynical, they made on the arts in India. Their understanding of the grammar of these arts, and of their aesthetics, might have been partial, but their observation was sharp.
Writing anything close to the history of art in India, or aspects of it, began no earlier than the early years of the twentieth century, but a fair body of material came together then. There were scholars who translated old but nearly lost texts and added their own comments on them; others took stock of what was on the ground and helped to deepen understanding; still others who brought little known, or virtually unnoticed, developments in the arts into the foreground, Gopinath Rao, Manmohan Ghose, P.K. Acharya, Ananda Coomaraswamy, J. Ph. Vogel, Vincent Smith, E.B. Havell, Abanindranath Tagore, J.c. French, Goetz and Kuhnel, Stella Kramrisch, N.C. Mehta, among them. Excerpts from their writings go legit- imately into the 'Readings' that this volume consists of.
What has been set forth above might convey to the reader an idea of how things have been gone about, but there are other things that have also been researched, other sources drawn upon. In any case, the materials gathered have been organized under six sections: Early Textual References to Art; Icons and Their Measurements; Aesthetic Theory; Artists and Patrons; The Arts in Practice and as Observed; and Early Art Historical Writings.
There is much overlapping in this ordering, and it is admittedly somewhat arbitrary. But we hope that it makes for some convenience of consultation. With the same consideration in mind, each section is introduced, or preceded by, what can be called 'head-notes'.
A few things need to be stated about this effort. What is put together here is, in the nature of things, excerpts from sources, illustrative rather than exhaustive. The intention clearly is to lead the researcher/reader to those sources and by no means exhaust them. Other scholars might easily have gone for other sources or selections, and, naturally therefore, other readings. Some passages here run into several pages and there are others- inscriptions, colophons, and the like-that consist of no more than a few lines. But then that is of the essence of the material. An effort has been made, not always successfully, to provide some dates although perfectly secure dates, at least as far as early India is concerned, are the exception rather than the rule.
Two things in the end. This volume concerns itself essentially with the visual arts and not the performing or the literary. Spreading out into those other fields would have required another volume. Likewise, the final section on Early Art Historical Writings, stops suddenly, and indefensibly perhaps, with the year 1947. What followed after that, we are aware, is filled with other riches, but those, again, deserve to go into another volume. Meanwhile, it is hoped that what is put together and presented here would provide some insights, as also factually prove of some value to those whom the arts of India continue to interest.
Contents
Acknowledgements | xv | |
Introduction | XVII | |
PART I - EARLY TEXTUAL REFERENCES TO ART | ||
1 | The Hymn of Creation', from the Rig-veda | 3 |
2 | References to the Physical Attributes of Deities in the Rig-veda | 5 |
3 | Silpas or Hymns for Producing Art | 6 |
4 | An Image of a Woman Made Out of Gold by the Bodhisattva in the Kusa-Jataka | 7 |
5 | References to the Bodhisattva's Inherent Skill in Architecture, and the Act of Decorating Buildings, from the Maha- Ummaga Jataka | 9 |
6 | Bharata's Identification of a Sculpture of His Father, through Its Lakshanas | 11 |
7 | Mention of Craftsmen and Artisans in the Description of the Crowd That Welcomes the Buddha to Kapilavastu | 15 |
8 | A List of Sixty-four Arts from Yashodhara's Commentary on the Kamasutra ofVatsyayana | 17 |
9 | Sixty-four Kalas from the Shaivatantra | 21 |
10 | The Art of Painting and the Artist Used as Metaphors in the Context of Buddha's Teachings | 22 |
11 | Separated from Shakuntala, King Dushyanta Commissions Her | 24 |
12 | The 'Birth' of Painting as the Heavenly Apsara Urvashi | 27 |
13 | The Interrelationship of the Main Branches of the Arts, Elucidated by Markandeya in the Chitrasiura | 29 |
14 | The Divine Origins of Chitra, as Expounded by Brahma | 31 |
15 | The Bodhisattva's Accomplishment in the Arts | 33 |
16 | A Painter Fools Everyone by Painting a Life-like Image of His Own Corpse in a Tocharian Jataka | 35 |
17 | A Reference to the Celebrated Painter Mani in the Persian Epic E15 | 38 |
18 | A King and His Friend Attempt to Guess the Identity of a Woman through Her Attributes as Painted in the Murals in the Palace | 41 |
19 | The Striking Realism of a Queen's Portrait Raises Suspicion in the Mind of the Patron King | 45 |
20 | A Princess Identifies Her Beloved, Only Encountered in a Dream, from a Painting Made by Her Friend | 47 |
21 | A Painted Peacock Feather Is Mistaken for a Real One by a King | 49 |
22 | A Prince Falls in Love with a Beautiful Stone Statue of a Woman | 50 |
23 | A Story of the Origin of the Arts, in the [ain Context | 52 |
24 | A Competition between the Artists of Turkey and China | 53 |
25 | The Emperor of China Is Helped by His Minister's Skill in the Art of Painting | 56 |
26 | Different Artisans Drawn on the Playing Cards Specifically Designed for Akbar, as Described by Abu'l Fazl | 61 |
27 | A Portrait of the Princess of China Causes All Men to Fall in Love with Her | 63 |
28 | The Uniting of Separated Lovers as a Theme in Paintings | 65 |
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1 | Forms of the .lmages of Different Devas: Rama, Varaha, Narasimha, Shiva, and Others | 69 |
2 | Characteristics of the Image of Vasudeva and Other Gods: Iconography and Measurements | 71 |
3 | Passages Relating to Varieties of Lingas and Benefits from Their Worship | 74 |
4 | Measurements of the Five Kinds of Men from the Churasutra | 76 |
5 | Shiva Reveals His Many Forms, in the Tantric Text Shiva Rahasya | 78 |
6 | Different Temple Structures Listed and Explained by Varaha Mihira | 81 |
7 | The Necessary Qualifications of Architects, and the System of Measurement To Be Followed, as Expounded in the Manasara | 83 |
8 | The Manasara's Instructions on the 'Chiselling of the Eyes' of Idols to Prepare Them for Worship | 87 |
9 | Description on the Making of the Images of the Buddha | 92 |
10 | Prescriptions Concerning the Making of Images, Etc., as Given in the Sukranitisara | 94 |
11 | Svarupas of Diverse Hindu Deities, and Some Measurements | 96 |
12 | Directions from the Sariputra on the Making of the Images of the Buddha | 98 |
13 | Buddha's Own Recommendations about How Images of His Should Be Made: Measurements and Other Details | 101 |
14 | Iconographic Details for the Images of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, as well as Hindu Deity Ganesha, from the Sadhanamala | 105 |
15 | The Fourteen Dreams ofTrishala, as Described in the Kalpa Sutra | 107 |
16 | Prescriptions for the Images of Jain Deities | 111 |
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The Eight Rasas Explained | 117 | |
The 'Laws of Dance': Expressions, Gestures, Glances, Hand Positions, Etc. | 127 | |
Aesthetic Experience as Annotated in Abhinavagupta's Commentary on the Natyashastra | 134 | |
An Approach to Aesthetics through a Combined Study of Rhetoric and Drama | 137 | |
The Six Fundamental Rules of Painting Elucidated | 139 | |
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1 | A Description of Materials and Methods of Making Images | 143 |
2 | Recipes for Lepas or Plasters To Be Used for Construction and Repair | 145 |
3 | The Guide to the Lost Wax Technique Used to Cast Idols | 147 |
4 | A Summary of the Contents of the Mayamatam | 149 |
5 | The Method of Plastering Walls in Preparation for Painting | 151 |
6 | Rules for the Correct Technique of Painting | 154 |
7 | The 'Epistle' of Maulana Sultan Ali | 157 |
8 | Detailed Description of the Netra Mangalya, or the Ceremony of 'Eye Opening' of a Sacred Image | 162 |
9 | A Chapter on Pratima Lakshana-the Characteristics of (Sacred) Images-Guides Sculptors on Materials and Methods | 168 |
10 | Reference to the Oris san Artist's Process as It Was in Eighteenth Century | 171 |
11 | Two Official Documents on the Production of Paper at Daulatabad | 172 |
12 | The Process for Obtaining Peori Yellow Pigment | 174 |
13 | Methods of Extracting Dyes Explained | 176 |
14 | Documentation of the Process of Making Paper | 179 |
15 | A List of Botanical Sources of Coloured Pigments, Used for Making Dyes | 181 |
16 | Procedure for Making Sialkoti Paper | 184 |
17 | Faxian's Description of the Chariot Procession of Buddha at Pataliputra | 186 |
18 | Xuanzang's Account of Stupas and Images of Buddha in Gandhara | 188 |
19 | Alberuni's Observations on the Materials Used for Writing and Painting in India | 190 |
20 | Domingo Paes Describes the Vijayanagara Empire | 193 |
21 | Opulence of the Kingdom of Vi jay an agar a as Observed by Fernao Nuniz | 196 |
22 | An Early Description of the Elephanta Caves | 198 |
23 | Taranath's Record of the History of Some Accomplished Indian Artists | 200 |
24 | An Extract from a Letter by the Dutch Painter Cornelis Claez de Heda | 202 |
25 | William Finch Observes the Frescoes on the Walls of Royal Buildings at Lahore and Agra | 203 |
26 | Jesuit Priests Present a Painting of the Madonna at the Court of Akbar | 206 |
27 | Akbar's Visit to a Jesuit Chapel in Agra, as Recorded by Monserrate | 211 |
28 | Johannes de Laet's Estimation of the Wealth of the Mughal Monarchs | 213 |
29 | Thomas Roe's Encounters with Jahangir, and the Mughal Emperor's Interest in Western Art | 215 |
30 | Francois Bernier's Letter Describing the Art of Painting as Practised in Different Cities of Mughal India | 217 |
31 | Tavernier's Detailed Description of the Mughal 'Peacock Throne' | 219 |
32 | Travelogue of Thevenot as He Travelled through Different Parts of India, Observing the Arts and Monuments | 221 |
33 | Forbes's Appreciation of the Art at Elephanta and Ellora | 225 |
34 | The Artist William Hodges's Thoughts and Observances on Indian Architecture | 227 |
35 | The Process of Production of Paper at 'Hurry Ha!' as Witnessed by Edward Moor | 229 |
36 | A Description of the Temples at Barolli | 231 |
37 | References to the Art of Painting under the Kangra Ruler Sansar Chand from William Moorcroft's Correspondence and Journals | 234 |
38 | Frescoes at Mandi Described by Vigne | 236 |
39 | Details of the Frescoes in the Palace at Wazirabad | 238 |
40 | References to Murals from the Journals of William Barr | 240 |
41 | Leopold von Orlich's Encounter with the Court Painter of Maharaja Sher Singh | 242 |
42 | Reference to a Local Artist, in the Letters of Emily Eden | 243 |
43 | Paintings of Kangra and Chamba Observed and Described by an Austrian Soldier and Traveller | 244 |
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1 | Details of Artists and Artisans in the Accounts of the Padmakesara Temple at Konaraka, from the Time of Its Construction | 251 |
2 | A Letter of the Famed Persian Painter Bihzad | 255 |
3 | A Royal Warrant Appointing Bihzad as the Head of the Royal Library of Shah Esma'il | 257 |
4 | Reference to Artists from the Account of Humayun's Reign, in the Words of His Chronicler Bayazid Biyat | 259 |
5 | Abu'l Fazl's Account of the Arts of Writing and Painting as Practised during the Reign of Akbar | 261 |
6 | Badauni's Reference to Two Artists from the Imperial Atelier of Akbar | 268 |
7 | A Selection of References Collected from Different Literary Sources on the Making of the Hamza Nama under the Patronage of Akbar | 270 |
8 | Mir Musavvir's Petition | 274 |
9 | The Painter Keshavadas's Petition | 275 |
10 | A Reference to Farrukh Husain, a Painter at the Court of Ibrahim II Adil Shahi of Bijapur | 276 |
11 | References to the Art of Painting in the Autobiography of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir | 277 |
12 | Jahangir's Interest in Portraiture as Recorded by the Scholar Mutribi | 280 |
13 | Reference to Maharaja Ranjit Singh's Patronage of Painting | 282 |
14 | Instructions Sent by Polier to His Indian Artist Mehrchand | 284 |
15 | Catalogues Maintained by the State of Bikaner: Record of the Contribution of Individual Artists to the Commissioned Manuscripts | 287 |
16 | Painter Shiba's Letter to His Patron, the Maharaja of Kangra | 289 |
17 | Entries Made in Pilgrims' Registers at Haridwar by Members of an Artist Family | 291 |
18 | Petitions Written by Artists, Addressed to Their Patrons | 293 |
19 | Details of the Construction of a Temple Commissioned by the Maharani of Marwar: Details on the Artisans and Labourers | 296 |
20 | Records Relating to the Craftsmen Employed by the Jagannath Temple at Puri | 298 |
21 | Donations by Artisans and Craftsmen Recorded in Inscriptions at the Sanchi Stupa | 303 |
22 | Two Inscriptions from the Bharhut Stupa Record the Donations Made by a Stone Worker and a Sculptor | 304 |
23 | Donation by an Artisan to a Stupa at Jaggayapeta in the Andhra Region | 305 |
24 | Votive Inscriptions from the Amravati Stupa | 306 |
25 | Record of the Donations Received in the Kanheri Caves of Maharashtra | 307 |
26 | The Migration of a Guild of Weavers from Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh Recorded in an Inscription | 308 |
27 | A Brief Inscription from Ajanta Containing the Name of an Artist Apprentice | 312 |
28 | Extracts from an Inscription Recording the Employment of Different Artists and Craftsmen at the Rajarajeshwara Temple in Tanjavur | 313 |
29 | Deopara Stone Inscription Signed by the Sculptor | 315 |
30 | Inscriptions from a Hoysala Temple at Belur Record the Names of the Sculptors | 316 |
31 | An Engraver's Signature in an Inscription from Silimpur, West Bengal | 319 |
32 | Names of Artisans, Stone Cutters, and Labourers Documented in Inscriptions Found at Radhanpur, Gujarat | 320 |
33 | The Colophon of an Early Kalpasutra Manuscript | 322 |
34 | The Colophon of a Fifteenth-century Vasanta- Vilasa Scroll | 323 |
35 | Important Information Extracted from the Colophon of a Manuscript from Jaunpur | 324 |
36 | Inscriptions in the Hands of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan on an Album of Persian Poetry | 325 |
37 | A Detailed Colophon of a Devi Mahatmya Manuscript from the Pahari Region | 328 |
38 | Name of the Scribe Recorded in the Colophon of a Deval Rani Khizr Khan Manuscript | 329 |
39 | Colophon of an Illustrated Anwar-i-Suhailli Manuscript | 330 |
40 | The Detailed Colophon of a Ramayana Manuscript Commissioned by the Khan-i-Khanan Abdul Rahim | 331 |
41 | Names of Artists, Place, and Date of Creation, from the Colophon of a Ragamala Series from 1591 CE | 333 |
42 | A Colophon from a Manuscript of the Anwar-i-Suhailli, Completed at Lahore | 334 |
43 | The Colophon of a Lavishly Illuminated Manuscript of the Khamsah of Amir Khusrau | 335 |
44 | The Colophon of a Nafahat al- Uns Written by Abdul Rahim during the Reign of Akbar, at Agra | 336 |
45 | An Inscription by Jahangir in an Illustrated Ramayana Manuscript of the Imperial Mughal Library | 337 |
46 | The Colophon from a Bustan Manuscript Written at Agra | 338 |
47 | The Colophon from an Illustrated Vijnaptipatra Scroll | 339 |
48 | The Colophon from a Ragamala Series | 341 |
49 | The Colophon from a Gulistan Manuscript, Written by Ruknuddin Mas'ud, a Poet and Physician of the Mughal Court | 342 |
50 | The Colophon of a Ragamala Manuscript Illustrated by the Eminent Mewar Painter Sahibdin | 343 |
51 | Three Sectional Colophons from a Manuscript Containing Three Different Texts | 344 |
52 | The Colophon of a Basholi Rasamanjari Series from 1695 CE | 346 |
53 | An Inscription from a Painting of Lakshmi-Narayan from the Reign of Karan Singh of Bikaner | 347 |
54 | The Colophon of a Ragamala Manuscript Painted at Amber in 1709 CE | 348 |
55 | Three Colophons from Manuscripts Produced during the Reign of Maharana Sangram Singh of Mewar | 349 |
56 | Different Interpretations and Translations of the Colophon of a Pahari Gita-Govinda Series, Attributed to the Artist Manaku | 350 |
57 | The Colophon of a Madhu-Malati Manuscript from Kulu | 352 |
58 | The Colophon of a Series of Ramayana Drawings, Written by the Pandit Who Collaborated with the Artist | 353 |
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1 | Ram Raz, An Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus | 357 |
2 | B.H. Baden-Powell, Handbook of the Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab | 359 |
3 | George C.M. Birdwood, The Industrial Arts of India | 363 |
4 | Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras | 365 |
5 | T.H. Hendley, Memorials of the Jeypore Exhibition 1883 | 369 |
6 | The Parable of Indian Art' | 373 |
7 | T.N. Mukharji, Art-Manufactures of India | 377 |
8 | Albert Grunwedel, Buddhist Art in India | 380 |
9 | Edmund W. Smith, 'Wall Paintings Recently Found in the Khwabgah Fathpur Sikri, Near Agra' | 383 |
10 | George Watt, Indian Art at Delhi 1903 | 390 |
11 | J.L. Kipling, The Beast and Man in India | 392 |
12 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Indian Craftsman | 396 |
13 | J. Ph. Vogel, Catalogue of the Bhuri Singh Museum at Chamba | 400 |
14 | James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture | 403 |
15 | Christiana J. Herringham, 'The Frescos of Ajanta' | 406 |
16 | Defects in Indian Art Ware' | 410 |
17 | Festival of Empire and Imperial Exhibition' | 415 |
18 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, 'The Modern School of Indian Painting' | 418 |
19 | E.V. Havell, The Ideals of Indian Art | 422 |
20 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Eight Nayikas' | 424 |
21 | T.A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography | 427 |
22 | Abanindranath Tagore, Some Notes on Indian Artistic Anatomy | 430 |
23 | The Editor, 'Note on Previous Copyings of the Frescoes' | 432 |
24 | Laurence Binyon, 'The Place of Ajanta Paintings in Eastern Art' | 434 |
25 | George C.M. Birdwood, Sva | 436 |
26 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, Rajput Painting | 438 |
27 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Dance of Shiva | 443 |
28 | John Marshall, A Guide to Taxila | 451 |
29 | M. Auguste Rodin, 'The Dance o fShiva' | 456 |
30 | Laurence Binyon, The Court Painters of the Grand Moguls | 459 |
31 | L.D. Swamikannu Pillai, An Indian Ephemeris AD 700 to AD 1799 | 462 |
32 | Rabindranath Tagore, 'The Creative Ideal' | 465 |
33 | Percy Brown, Indian Painting under the Mughals, AD 1550 to AD 1750 | 470 |
34 | A.K. Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston | 480 |
35 | Ernst Kuhnel and Herman Goetz, Indian Book Painting | 484 |
36 | N.C. Mehta, Studies in Indian Painting | 490 |
37 | Ivan Stchoukine, La Peinture Indienne a l'Epoque des Grands Moghols | 493 |
38 | Vincent A. Smith, A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon | 496 |
39 | J.c. French, Himalayan Art | 499 |
40 | Muhammad Sana-ullah, 'Notes and Analyses' | 509 |
41 | Heinrich Zimmer, 'Some Aspects of Time in Indian Art' | 514 |
42 | E.J.H. Mackay, 'Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro' | 516 |
43 | Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple | 524 |
Bibliography | 529 | |
About the Editor | 537 |